References
Ahern, J., Stuber, J., &Galea, S. (2007). Stigma, discrimination and the health of illicit drug users. Drug and alcohol dependence88 (2-3), 188-196.
Alexander, B. K., &Schweighofer, A. R. (1988). Defining” addiction.”. Canadian psychology/psychologiecanadienne29 (2), 151.
Alonso, J., Buron, A., Bruffaerts, R., He, Y., Posada‐Villa, J., Lepine, J. P., …&Mneimneh, Z. N. (2008). Association of perceived stigma and mood and anxiety disorders: results from the World Mental Health Surveys. ActaPsychiatricaScandinavica118 (4), 305-314.
Ausubel, D. P. (1961). Causes and types of narcotic addiction: A psychosocial view. Psychiatric Quarterly35 (3), 523-531.
Babor, T. F., Meyer, R. E., Mirin, S. M., McNamee, H. B., & Davies, M. (1976).Behavioral and social effects of heroin self-administration and withdrawal. Archives of general psychiatry33 (3), 363-367.
Barry, C. L., McGinty, E. E., Pescosolido, B. A., & Goldman, H. H. (2014). Stigma, discrimination, treatment effectiveness, and policy: public views about drug addiction and mental illness. Psychiatric Services65 (10), 1269-1272.
Besacier, F., Chaudron-Thozet, H., Rousseau-Tsangaris, M., Girard, J., &Lamotte, A. (1997). Comparative chemical analyses of drug samples: general approach and application to heroin. Forensic science international85 (2), 113-125.
Bessenoff, G. R., & Snow, D. (2006).Absorbing society’s influence: Body image self-discrepancy and internalized shame. Sex Roles54 (9-10), 727-731.
Biewen, M., &Steffes, S. (2010). Unemployment persistence: Is there evidence for stigma effects?. Economics Letters106 (3), 188-190.
Bokhan, N. A., &Baturin, E. V. (2011).Gender heteronomy of the formation of heroin addiction in adolescents. Neuroscience and behavioral physiology41 (7), 710.
Bourgois, P. (2002). Anthropology and epidemiology on drugs: the challenges of cross-methodological and theoretical dialogue. International Journal of Drug Policy13 (4), 259-269.
Brohan, E., Elgie, R., Sartorius, N., Thornicroft, G., & GAMIAN-Europe Study Group. (2010). Self-stigma, empowerment and perceived discrimination among people with schizophrenia in 14 European countries: the GAMIAN-Europe study. Schizophrenia research122 (1-3), 232-238.
Bozinoff, N., Anderson, B. J., Bailey, G. L., & Stein, M. D. (2018a). Correlates of Stigma Severity Among Persons Seeking Opioid Detoxification. Journal of addiction medicine12 (1), 19-23.
Brohan, E., Slade, M., Clement, S., &Thornicroft, G. (2010). Experiences of mental illness stigma, prejudice and discrimination: a review of measures. BMC health services research10 (1), 80.
Brown, C. (2010). Mental health treatment seeking among older adults with depression: the impact of stigma and race. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry18 (6), 531-543.
Buchman, D., & Reiner, P. B. (2009). Stigma and addiction: Being and becoming. The American Journal of Bioethics9 (9), 18-19.
Burr, A. (1987). Chasing the dragon: Heroin misuse, delinquency and crime in the context of south London culture. The British Journal of Criminology27 (4), 333-357.
Chassin, L., Presson, C. C., Rose, J., & Sherman, S. J. (2007). What is addiction? Age-related differences in the meaning of addiction. Drug and alcohol dependence87 (1), 30-38.
Cheon, B. K., &Chiao, J. Y. (2012).Cultural variation in implicit mental illness stigma. Journal of cross-cultural psychology43 (7), 1058-1062.
Cicero, T. J., Ellis, M. S., Surratt, H. L., & Kurtz, S. P. (2014). The changing face of heroin use in the United States: a retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. JAMA psychiatry71 (7), 821-826.
Clarke, J. J. (2002). Oriental enlightenment: The encounter between Asian and Western thought . Routledge.
Conner, K. O., Copeland, V. C., Grote, N. K., Koeske, G., Rosen, D., Reynolds III, C. F., &
Chiauzzi, E. J., &Liljegren, S. (1993). Taboo topics in addiction treatment: An empirical review of clinical folklore.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment10 (3), 303-316.
Corrigan, P. W., Kuwabara, S. A., & O’Shaughnessy, J. (2009). The public stigma of mental illness and drug addiction: Findings from a stratified random sample. Journal of Social Work9 (2), 139-147.
Corrigan, P. W., Larson, J. E., &Ruesch, N. (2009a). Self‐stigma and the “why try” effect: impact on life goals and evidence‐based practices. World psychiatry8 (2), 75-81.
Diener, E., Gohm, C. L., Suh, E., &Oishi, S. (2000). Similarity of the relations between marital status and subjective well-being across cultures. Journal of cross-cultural psychology31 (4), 419-436.
Drapalski, A. L., Lucksted, A., Perrin, P. B., Aakre, J. M., Brown, C. H., DeForge, B. R., & Boyd, J. E. (2013). A model of internalized stigma and its effects on people with mental illness. Psychiatric Services64 (3), 264-269.
Dubey, C., Arora, M., Gupta, S., & Kumar, B. (2010). Five factor correlates: A comparison of substance abusers and non-substance abusers. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology36 (1), 107-114.
Evren, C., Ozcetinkaya, S., Ulku, M., Cagil, D., Gokalp, P., Cetin, T., &Yigiter, S. (2012). Relationship of defense styles with history of childhood trauma and personality in heroin dependent inpatients. Psychiatry research200 (2-3), 728-733.
Ford, J. A., &Arrastia, M. C. (2008). Pill-poppers and dopers: A comparison of non-medical prescription drug use and illicit/street drug use among college students. Addictive behaviors33 (7), 934-941.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., &Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of personality and social psychology78 (1), 136.
Earnshaw, V. A., & Quinn, D. M. (2012).The impact of stigma in healthcare on people living with chronic illnesses. Journal of health psychology17 (2), 157-168.
Frable, D. E., Wortman, C., & Joseph, J. (1997). Predicting self‐esteem, well‐being, and distress in a cohort of gay men: The importance of cultural stigma, personal visibility, community networks, and positive identity. Journal of personality65 (3), 599-624.
Fieldman, N. P., Woolfolk, R. L., & Allen, L. A. (1995). Dimensions of self-concept: a comparison of heroin and cocaine addicts. The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse21 (3), 315-326.
Gould, M., Adler, A., Zamorski, M., Castro, C., Hanily, N., Steele, N., …& Greenberg, N. (2010). Do stigma and other perceived barriers to mental health care differ across Armed Forces?. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine103 (4), 148-156.
Goodman, A. (1990). Addiction: definition and implications. British journal of addiction85 (11), 1403-1408.
Granfield, R., & Cloud, W. (1996). The elephant that no one sees: Natural recovery among middle-class addicts. Journal of Drug Issues26 (1), 45-61.
Gray, R. (2010). Shame, labeling and stigma: Challenges to counseling clients in alcohol and other drug settings. Contemporary drug problems37 (4), 685-703.
Griffiths, M. (2005).A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance use10 (4), 191-197.
Gureje, O., Vazquez‐Barquero, J. L., &Janca, A. (1996). Comparisons of alcohol and other drugs: experience from the WHO collaborative cross‐cultural applicability research (CAR) study. Addiction91 (10), 1529-1538.
Harding, W. M., &Zinberg, N. E. (1977). The effectiveness of the subculture in developing rituals and social sanctions for controlled drug use. Drugs, Rituals, and Altered States of Consciousness. Netherlands: AA Balkema .
Heit, H. A. (2003). Addiction, physical dependence, and tolerance: precise definitions to help clinicians evaluate and treat chronic pain patients. Journal of pain & palliative care pharmacotherapy17 (1), 15-29.
Khantzian, E. J. (1978). The ego, the self and opiate addiction: Theoretical and treatment considerations. International Review of Psycho-Analysis5 , 189-198.
Khantzian, E. J. (2013a). Addiction as a self‐regulation disorder and the role of self‐medication. Addiction108 (4), 668-669.
Kleinman, A., & Hall-Clifford, R. (2009). Stigma: a social, cultural and moral process.
Koob, G. F. (2000). Neurobiology of addiction: toward the development of new therapies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences909 (1), 170-185.
Kreek, M. J. (2011). Extreme marginalization: addiction and other mental health disorders, stigma, and imprisonment.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences1231 (1), 65-72.
Krakowski, M. (2003). Violence and serotonin: influence of impulse control, affect regulation, and social functioning. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences15 (3), 294-305.
Lin, H. C., Chang, Y. P., Wang, P. W., Wu, H. C., Yen, C. N., Yeh, Y. C., … & Yen, C. F. (2013). Gender differences in heroin users receiving methadone maintenance therapy in Taiwan. Journal of addictive diseases32 (2), 140-149.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001).Conceptualizing stigma.Annual review of Sociology27 (1), 363-385.
Livingston, J. D., & Boyd, J. E. (2010a). Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social science & medicine71 (12), 2150-2161.
Livingston, J. D., Milne, T., Fang, M. L., &Amari, E. (2012). The effectiveness of interventions for reducing stigma related to substance use disorders: a systematic review. Addiction107 (1), 39-50.
Livingston, J. D., & Boyd, J. E. (2010). Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social science & medicine71 (12), 2150-2161.
Lockman, Z. (2009). Contending visions of the Middle East: The history and politics of Orientalism  (Vol. 3). Cambridge University Press.
Lysaker, P. H., Roe, D., &Yanos, P. T. (2006). Toward understanding the insight paradox: internalized stigma moderates the association between insight and social functioning, hope, and self-esteem among people with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia bulletin33 (1), 192-199.
Mahendran, R., Lim, H. A., Verma, S. K., &Kua, E. (2014). Attitudes to psychiatry can change but what about stigma. Ann Acad Med Singapore43 , 473-4.
Major, B., &O’brien, L. T. (2005).The social psychology of stigma. Annu. Rev. Psychol.56 , 393-421.
Malik, S. A., Khan, C., Jabbar, A., &Iqbal, A. (1992).Heroin addiction and sex hormones in males. JOURNAL-PAKISTAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION42 , 210-210.
Markus, H., &Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual review of psychology38 (1), 299-337.
Mashiach-Eizenberg, M., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Yanos, P. T., Lysaker, P. H., & Roe, D. (2013). Internalized stigma and quality of life among persons with severe mental illness: the mediating roles of self-esteem and hope. Psychiatry research208 (1), 15-20.
Matthews, S., Dwyer, R., &Snoek, A. (2017).Stigma and self-stigma in addiction. Journal of bioethical inquiry14 (2), 275-286.
McConnell, A. R. (2011). The multiple self-aspects framework: Self-concept representation and its implications. Personality and Social Psychology Review15 (1), 3-27.
McGinty, E. E., Goldman, H. H., Pescosolido, B., & Barry, C. L. (2015).Portraying mental illness and drug addiction as treatable health conditions: effects of a randomized experiment on stigma and discrimination. Social Science & Medicine126 , 73-85.
Mittal, D., Sullivan, G., Chekuri, L., Allee, E., & Corrigan, P. W. (2012). Empirical studies of self-stigma reduction strategies: a critical review of the literature. Psychiatric Services63 (10), 974-981.
Mohamed, S. (2011). Stigma and mental illness: are there cultural differences?  (Doctoral dissertation, University of East Anglia).
Nakhaee, N., &Jadidi, N. (2009). Why do some teens turn to drugs? a focus group study of drug users’ experiences. Journal of Addictions Nursing20 (4), 203-208.
Ng, C. H. (1997).The stigma of mental illness in Asian cultures. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry ,31 (3), 382-390.
Nimgaonkar, V. L. (2015). Suggested avenues to reduce the stigma of mental illness in the Middle East. International Journal of Social Psychiatry ,61 (2), 111-120.
Overstreet, N. M., & Quinn, D. M. (2013).The intimate partner violence stigmatization model and barriers to help seeking. Basic and applied social psychology35 (1), 109-122.
Perry, A. N., Westenbroek, C., & Becker, J. B. (2016).Sex differences and addiction.In Sex Differences in the Central Nervous System  (pp. 129-147).Academic Press.
Pescosolido, B. A., Olafsdottir, S., Martin, J. K., & Long, J. S. (2008). Cross-cultural aspects of the stigma of mental illness. Understanding the stigma of mental illness: Theory and interventions , 19-36.
Paterson, L., McKenzie, K., & Lindsay, B. (2012).Stigma, social comparison and self‐esteem in adults with an intellectual disability. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities25 (2), 166-176.
Reissner, V., Kokkevi, A., Schifano, F., Room, R., Storbjörk, J., Stohler, R., …&Scherbaum, N. (2012). Differences in drug consumption, comorbidity and health service use of opioid addicts across six European urban regions (TREAT-project).European Psychiatry27 (6), 455-462. Reissner, V., Kokkevi, A., Schifano, F., Room, R., Storbjörk, J., Stohler, R., …&Scherbaum, N. (2012). Differences in drug consumption, comorbidity and health service use of opioid addicts across six European urban regions (TREAT-project).European Psychiatry27 (6), 455-462.
Ritsher, J. B., & Phelan, J. C. (2004a). Internalized stigma predicts erosion of morale among psychiatric outpatients. Psychiatry research129 (3), 257-265.
Room, R. (2004). Thinking about how social inequalities relate to alcohol and drug use and problems. 1st International Summer School on Inequalities and Addictions .
Roy, A. (2010). Risk factors for attempting suicide in heroin addicts. Suicide and life-threatening behavior40 (4), 416-420.
Rüsch, N., Angermeyer, M. C., & Corrigan, P. W. (2005). Mental illness stigma: concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European psychiatry20 (8), 529-539.
Sattler, S., Escande, A., Racine, E., &Göritz, A. S. (2017). Public stigma toward people with drug addiction: a factorial survey. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs78 (3), 415-425.
Shafiq, M. (1987).Self-perceptions of heroin addicts and nonaddicts. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research2 (3-4).
Shellenberg, K. M., Moore, A. M., Bankole, A., Juarez, F., Omideyi, A. K., Palomino, N., …&Tsui, A. O. (2011). Social stigma and disclosure about induced abortion: results from an exploratory study. Global Public Health6 (sup1), S111-S125.
Slay, H. S., & Smith, D. A. (2011). Professional identity construction: Using narrative to understand the negotiation of professional and stigmatized cultural identities. Human relations64 (1), 85-107.
Sibitz, I., Amering, M., Unger, A., Seyringer, M. E., Bachmann, A., Schrank, B., …&Woppmann, A. (2011). The impact of the social network, stigma and empowerment on the quality of life in patients with schizophrenia. European psychiatry26 (1), 28-33.
Skog, O. J. (2003). Addiction: definitions and mechanisms. In Choice, behavioural economics and addiction  (pp. 157-182).Pergamon.
Sewilam, A. M., Watson, A. M., Kassem, A. M., Clifton, S., McDonald, M. C., Lipski, R., …&
Thompson, W. E., Hickey, J. V., & Thompson, M. L. (2016). Society in focus: An introduction to sociology . Rowman& Littlefield.
Thornicroft, G., Mehta, N., Clement, S., Evans-Lacko, S., Doherty, M., Rose, D., …& Henderson, C. (2016). Evidence for effective interventions to reduce mental-health-related stigma and discrimination. The Lancet387 (10023), 1123-1132.
Toynbee, A. J. (1988). A Study of History: Volume I: Abridgement of  (Vol. 1). Oxford Paperbacks.
Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000).
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2002a). Self-esteem and socioeconomic status: A meta-analytic review. Personality and social psychology review6 (1), 59-71.
Van Brakel, W. H. (2006). Measuring health-related stigma—a literature review. Psychology, health & medicine11 (3), 307-334.
Vassileva, J., Georgiev, S., Martin, E., Gonzalez, R., &Segala, L. (2011). Psychopathic heroin addicts are not uniformly impaired across neurocognitive domains of impulsivity. Drug and alcohol dependence114 (2-3), 194-200.
Vogel, D. L., Bitman, R. L., Hammer, J. H., & Wade, N. G. (2013). Is stigma internalized? The longitudinal impact of public stigma on self-stigma. Journal of counseling psychology60 (2), 311.
Vohs, K. D., &Baumeister, R. F. (2009).Addiction and free will.
Walters, G. D., & Gilbert, A. A. (2000).Defining addiction: Contrasting views of clients and experts. Addiction Research8 (3), 211-220.
Warner‐Smith, M., Darke, S., Lynskey, M., & Hall, W. (2001). Heroin overdose: causes and consequences. Addiction96 (8), 1113-1125.
West, R., & Brown, J. (2013). Theory of addiction .John Wiley & Sons.
White, W. L. (2007). Addiction recovery: Its definition and conceptual boundaries. Journal of substance abuse treatment33 (3), 229-241.
White, W. L. (2000a). Addiction as a disease: The birth of a concept. Addiction51 , 73.
White, W. L. (2009b). Long-term strategies to reduce the stigma attached to addiction, treatment, and recovery within the City of Philadelphia (with particular reference to medication-assisted treatment/recovery). Philadelphia: Department of Behavioral Health and Mental Retardation Services .
Yang, L. H., Kleinman, A., Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., Lee, S., & Good, B. (2007). Culture and stigma: Adding moral experience to stigma theory. Social science & medicine64 (7), 1524-1535.
Yanos, P. T., Roe, D., &Lysaker, P. H. (2010).The impact of illness identity on recovery from severe mental illness. American journal of psychiatric rehabilitation13 (2), 73-93.
Yanos, P. T., Roe, D., &Lysaker, P. H. (2011a). Narrative enhancement and cognitive therapy: a new group-based treatment for internalized stigma among persons with severe mental illness. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy61 (4), 576-595.
Yılmaz, E., &Okanlı, A. (2015).The effect of internalized stigma on the adherence to treatment in patients with schizophrenia. Archives of psychiatric nursing29 (5), 297-301.